Clinical Anatomy

Posterior transpedicular screw fixation has been widely used for the management of unstable lumbosacral spine caused by trauma, degenerative conditions, congenital defects and neoplasms. Knowledge of the pedicle diameters of the first sacral vertebra is crucial for safe placement of the screws. Thirty dry sacral specimens (18 male, 12 female) were used for study of the first sacral pedicles. Cephalad-caudad height, anterior-posterior width, transverse and sagittal angles, and depth of S1 pedicle were presented. The mean width of the pedicles were estimated as 22.5+/-2.6 mm and 22.2+/-2.8 mm; the heights were 13.6+/-2.3 mm and 13.6+/-2.7 mm; the depths were 50.7+/-3.7 mm and 51.8+/-3.5 mm for female and male, respectively. The mean transverse angles were 43 degrees +/-2.3 and 41 degrees +/-2.2; the sagittal angles were 19 degrees +/-2.9 and 19 degrees +/-3.7 for female and male, respectively. The depth and the angle of screw trajectory is as important as entrance point for pedicular ...

contents showed a typical reaction for pancreatic secretion.. The result was a complete convalescence. Up to about three months ago the patient was in good health. About that time he began to have discomfort in the abdomen, and three weeks ago noticed a swelling in the left hypogastrium. On admission there was considerable swelling in the left side, and the outline much resembled that of the former tumour in size and shape. An enlarged spleen was made out and a blood examination revealed medullary leukeemia. The patient seems in fair general health. Blood examinations show considerable improvement under arsenic and iron since admission.

Characteristic epidermal ridges formed on the finger pad and on the palm by the end of the second trimester and remain unchanged thereafter and those are responsible for the highly specific finger prints of each individual. These ridges are nither influenced by later prenatal period nor they subject to any influence in the postnatal environmental factors because the formation of ridge patterns gets already completed by about the eighteenth week of gestation. Dermatoglyphics is a scientific study of such epidermal ridges. Dermatoglyphic study of both palms of clinically diagnosed vitiligo patients and control subjects were carried out and statisticaltly analysed in respect to sex and side of hands. The study revealed variable number of deviations of this patterns in Vitiligo patients when compared with that of control. Increased number of true palmar patterns in right hypothenar, right thenar and both inter digital areas 2 (ID-2) and decreased TPP in Rt. ID3, Rt. ID4 in vitiligo male...

A prolonged ECG QT interval duration and an increased QT dispersion (QTd) are predictors of sudden cardiac death. Anemia is known as a marker of adverse outcome in cardiovascular disease. The aim was to assess the relationship between anemia and QT intervals in hypertensive patients. Method: A total of 72 hypertensive patients underwent standard 12-lead ECG. QT intervals and QT dispersions were manually measured. Complete blood count was also assessed. Result: Linear regression analysis revealed significant associations between prolonged QTc and increased QTd and anemia and macrocytosis, respectively. Multiple regression analysis revealed a significant association between red cell distribution width (RDW) >15% and prolonged heart rate corrected maximal QT interval duration (QTc) and QT interval in lead DII (QTIIc). The most sensitive and specific predictor of prolonged QTc and QTIIc was anisocytosis. Anemia was the most sensitive predictor of QTd > 60ms and macrocytosis, the most specific. Anemia, macrocytosis and anisocytosis predict prolonged QT intervals in hypertensive patients.

Restoring penile function for urination and sexual activity, and achieving cosmetic result, are the goals of penile reconstruction including in post-malignancy reconstruction. Lack of studies has reported the usage of radial forearm flap on partial phalloplasty. A 31-years old male presented with fragile, cauliflower-like mass sizing 6x8 cm. The tumor had covered whole glans until the middle shaft of the penis. Plan of treatment for this patient started with complete excision of the tumor (partial penectomy), continued with phalloplasty. Phalloplasty consisted of using radial forearm flap (RFF) for penile foreskin (including glans), reconstructing corporal bodies using sartorius muscle, reshaping the penile glans, and urethroplasty to correct the hypospadic-looking urethra. Radial forearm flap of the non-dominant arm was implanted on the remaining foreskin of the penis, continued with wound care. On the 7th day postoperatively, no signs of necrotic, wound dehiscence, nor pus were ob...

IntroductIon Chorda tympani nerve (CTN) is a mixed type of nerve that has a sensory part which supplies taste buds of anterior two thirds of the tongue by innervating the fungiform papillae and a secretomotor component which contains preganglionic parasympathetic axons to supply the submandibular and sublingual glands. [1] Iatrogenic injury of CTN is a well-recognized complication of middle ear surgery. [2] However, there are certain clinical conditions in which CTN has been injured preoperatively by diseases as in chronic otitis media (COM) and cholesteatoma. [1] CTN may occasionally be sacrificed in favor of surgical access to save operating times and minimize problems. [1] Similar to surgery for noninflammatory disorders (such otosclerosis), individuals who have normal CTN function before the procedure require more attention during the procedure and a larger focus on the possibility of taste disruption as a consequence when obtaining consent. [3] CTN passes between incus and neck of malleus, enters canal of Huguier of petrotympanic fissure above tensor tympani tendon, goes through the medial surface of mandibular fossa, and joins lingual nerve at infratemporal fossa. [1] Its course in middle ear makes it vulnerable to trauma during the surgical procedure of the middle ear. The objective of this review is to discuss about surgical anatomy and its clinical perspectives of the CTN. Methods of LIterature search A search was done for research articles on the clinical perspective of CTN using various methods. This began with searching online databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Medline, and Google Scholar. A search strategy was created on the basis of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis guidelines. This approach found published article abstracts, and citations were used to manually find more research publications. The suitability of observational studies, case series, comparative studies, case reports, and randomized The largest branch of the facial nerve in the intrapetrous region of temporal bone is the chorda tympani nerve (CTN), which emerges from the facial nerve right before to its existence through the styloid foramen. The CTN carries taste sensation from anterior two-thirds of the tongue. It also provides secretomotor innervation to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. The CTN is commonly injured during middle ear surgery. The location of CTN in the middle ear cavity and lack of bony wall are makes this nerve prone for injury. The severity of CTN injury depends on the extent of trauma, type of surgery, and patient factors. Injury of the CTN can lead to temporary taste disturbances or dysgeusia. The symptoms often improve over time; these symptoms can be persistent and significantly affect the quality of life. A proper understanding of the anatomy of CTN is helpful to decrease the chance of iatrogenic damage during the middle ear and head-and-neck surgery. The goal of this review is to discuss the clinical perspectives of the CTN by proper understanding of its anatomical course in relation to surgery at temporal bone and middle ear.

IntroductionThe lungs have three main fissures: the right oblique fissure (ROF), right horizontal fissure (RHF), and left oblique fissure (LOF). These can be complete, incomplete or absent; quantifying the degree of completeness of these fissures is novel. Standard textbooks often refer to the fissures as complete, but awareness of variation is essential in thoracic surgery.Materials and MethodsFissures in 81 pairs of cadaveric lungs were classified. Oblique fissures were measured from lung hila posteriorly to the lung hila anteriorly; and the RHF measured from the ROF to the anteromedial lung edge. The degree of completeness of fissures was expressed as a percentage of the total projected length were they to be complete. The frequency and location of accessory fissures was noted.ResultsLOF were complete in 66/81 (81.5%), incomplete in 13/81 (16.0%) and absent in 2/81 (2.47%); ROF were complete in 52/81 (64.2%), incomplete in 29/81 (35.8%) and never absent; RHF were more variable, c...

The human body presents a variety of structural patterns and arrangements, known as anatomical variation. These variations usually have no effect on human health, but some variations may cause surgical faults due to an unusual or variant anatomy that attributed to patient injury. Anatomical variations related to the clinical training is not considered in most of anatomy courses in early medical education. It is crucial for surgeon and physician to know and understand the anatomical variation for effective diagnosis and treatment. It is important to introduce teaching and evaluating the anatomical variations in the medical curricula and postgraduate training of radiological and surgical programs. This review is written to highlight some variant anatomy that can affect the outcome of a surgical procedure and clinical practice.

The renal artery when it reaches close to the hilum of kidney where it cleaves into anterior and posterior divisions were receives around 75% and 25% of blood respectively. Further these branches divide into many segmental branches. These segmental arteries does not have collateral system, so when there is any occlusion of these arteries which results in the ischemia of the particular segment of kidney. Anatomists believe that knowledge of presence of lower polar artery is essential for polar nephrectomy. Prior knowledge of variations in the renal vessels is required for urological surgery for preoperative investigations as there are reports of surgical complications which include enormus haemorrhage. In this study we analyzed the different variations in the intra renal branch of inferior segmental artery.

Ultrasound and cadavers are both recognized teaching modalities for the delivery of cardiac anatomy to undergraduate medical students. This study considers the additive effect of the two teaching modalities. We previously reported no significant difference in cardiac anatomy knowledge when taught using either ultrasound echocardiography or cadaveric prosections, both modalities significantly increasing knowledge from baseline. This study considers the cross-over effect with the ultrasound group receiving anatomy teaching with cadavers and vice versa. The results of this study show a small increase in knowledge after experiencing two modalities, but this increase was not significant. Furthermore, the order in which students received their tuition also made no significant difference. These data suggests there is no additive effect of combining cadaveric prosections with ultrasound. This has implications for curriculum design. However, these findings do not consider the hidden learning...

Introduction : Foramen ovale of the sphenoid bone serves as an important landmark for neurosurgeons in the procedures involving the trigeminal nerve. Shape and size of the Foramen ovale is subject to vary as similar to other foramina. But, the Foramen ovale which is divided into two compartments is a rare variation. We report here a case of bilateral atypical foramina ovalia which is divided into medial and lateral compartments by an oblique bony lamina—the pterygoalar bar Case report : The medial compartment is regarded as a topographic counterpart to the Foramen ovale proper. The lateral compartment is regarded as canalis ovalis. Conclusion : The altered osseous morphology of this basicranial region may affect the course of the neurovascular structures which pass through the Foramen ovale. As a result, clinical symptoms could occur such as paresthesiae of the cheek and neuralgia resulting from compression of the mandibular nerve or its branches.

Background: Norsodyne is a new material for conservation and durable preservation of biological objects. The form we use is H 13212 TAE (Polynt Composites USA, Inc., Bergamo, Italy). This is an unsaturated polyester resin in styrene that is of low styrene emission. Features: resin has a specific weight 1.10 g/cm 2 at 20°C. Using test method MT-CUT23V the manufacturer has established that Brookfield viscosity at 23°C is 450-650 mPa.s. The jelly starts in 14-18 minutes and reaches its peak in 27-37 minutes at 23°C too. Acording to the test results of ISO 527 (2012) tensile strength of Norsodyne is 57 MPa and flexural strength is 98 MPa (ISO 178 (2011). Conclusion: This characteristic of Norsodyne indicates that the material can be used for the preservation and long-term storage of anatomical preparations for the needs of anatomy training. However, the Norsodyne needs special storage conditions. The material should be stored in a dark place. According to the manufacturer shelf life at 23°C in the dark is six months then spontaneous rubbing begins. The manufacturer's recommendations are: Store in the shade, out of direct sunlight. Keep storage temperature below 25°C. Unseal container just before use. Shelflife will be reduced reaching higher temperature.

Aim of the work: i to discuss the possible protective effect of vitamin E as a model of powerful antioxidant on the testes of adult albino rates exposed for electromagnetic field (EMF) emitted from cellular phone. This study also detected and described signs of morphological and behavior changes that can appear on the rats. Materials and Methods: The present study was carried out on 120 healthy adult albino rats. The rats were divided into 3 main groups. Group I (control group): consisted of 40 rats. These rats were kept in the animal house away from any source of EMF. Group II (radiation group): consisted of 40 rats that were exposed to EMF emitted from mobile phone for 60 days. Group III (radiation and vitamin group): consisted of 40 rats, those were exposed to EMF emitted from mobile phone for 60 days and simultaneously they received vitamin E, orally. Results: Electromagnetic field exposed rats showed testicular alterations, which were ameliorated by using vitamin E.

A 32 years old gentleman, presented in emergency department, with complaints of sudden onset of severe upper abdominal pain, associated with nausea and vomiting. He was a known case of acid peptic disease. His abdominal examination showed signs of peritonitis. X-ray chest showed pneumoperitoneum, with dextrocardia. Ultrasound showed situs inversus. Exploration confirmed the diagnosis of perforated ulcer and situs inversus. Grahm's patch repair of perforation was done. His postoperative recovery was smooth.

The stylohyoid ligament extends from the styloid process to the lesser cornu of the hyoid bone and develops from Reichert's cartilage of the second pharyngeal arch. While partial calcification of the ligament is relatively common, complete ossification is rare and may be associated with Eagle's syndrome. During routine cadaveric dissection, we observed bilateral ossification of the stylohyoid ligaments. On both sides, the ossified ligaments were firmly attached to the styloid processes and the hyoid bones, eliminating any degree of movement of the hyoid apparatus. Bilateral ossification of the stylohyoid ligaments is a rare anatomical variation. Awareness of this condition is important for clinicians, as it may present with symptoms of Eagle's syndrome or complicate surgical and anesthetic procedures, including tracheal intubation.

Background: Eagle's syndrome or elongated styloid syndrome is an unusual condition which often goes misdiagnosed due to its vague presenting symptoms as well as it's overlap with other causes of cervicofacial pain. The purpose of this case series is to highlight the importance of keeping eagle's syndrome as a differential diagnosis in patients who present with cervicofacial pain and to create awareness amongst dentists and maxillofacial clinicians about this condition. Methods: 12 patients ranging in age from 20-66 years reported to the department of oral and maxillofacial surgery with different types of cervicofacial pain that they had for years without any resolution. They were all diagnosed as cases of Eagle's syndrome, some with no etiological factor, few were post-trauma patients and some had a history of tonsillectomy. All the patients were managed conservatively initially, though they were explained about all treatment options including surgical and non-surgical. Results: All the patients were treated with medications and local anaesthetic infiltration and called for review after a week. Four patients had complete remission of symptoms, five patients had partial remission of symptoms though their pain was well controlled by medications, one patient who had complete remission of symptom was suggested and explained the surgical treatment and two of the patients were lost to follow up. Conclusions: It is important to be able to differentiate and diagnose this syndrome clinically and radiographically from other similar conditions such as facial neuralgias and temporomandibular disorders so as to avoid patients from going through multiple hospital visits with no definitive treatment. The fact that it often goes undiagnosed is proof of the underestimation of the incidence of this syndrome and hence clinicians and dentists should have a high index of suspicion for Eagle's syndrome in patients with cervicofacial and pharyngeal pain.

Keywords: Endoscopy, adenoid, diagnosis. With the advent of nasal endoscopes, diagnostic nasal endoscopy can be routinely used in children, aimed at avoiding radiological exposure and thus minimise the detrimental effects on the child. A total of 50 patients between 2-12 years were included in our study .Rigid zero degree paediatric nasal endoscopes (2 mm) were used. The most common findings were mucosal congestion, inferior turbinate hypertrophy, adenoid hypertrophy, septal deviation and sino-nasal polyps. Many ENT manifestations of symptoms have origin in the sino-nasal and nasopharyngeal area. Use of diagnostic nasal endoscopy reveals different findings, most notable being adenoid hypertrophy, sino-nasal polyps and rhinosinusitis. Paediatric nasal endoscopy can go a long way in providing a safe way of diagnosis and avoiding the hazards of radiation exposure in a growing child.

We recorded 3D coordinates for 28 mandibular landmarks from three-dimensional reconstructions of CT axial slices using the image analysis program eTDIPS. The images were acquired from a pediatric series of human mandibles (neonate to 13 years of age) from the Bosma collection (Shapiro and Richtsmeier, 1997, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 103:415-416). To test the accuracy of these coordinate data, we recorded the same 28 landmarks directly on the Bosma mandibles using a Polhemus 3Space digitizer. The directly digitized landmarks serve as a gold standard upon which to evaluate the eTDIPS data. Standard deviations of landmark placement using eTDIPS show a greater degree of variation compared to the data gathered using the digitizer, although this error is more heavily concentrated in certain types of landmarks. All possible linear distances between unique pairs of landmarks were calculated, and like linear distances were compared between the two data collection methods. The absolute difference for all like linear distances ranged from 0.001-3.9 mm (mean ϭ 0.377 mm; SD ϭ 1.136), with the eTDIPS data being consistently larger than the digitizer coordinates. This study demonstrates that landmark coordinate data can be reliably collected from digital CT images of the human mandible. We define a set of mandibular landmarks useful in evaluating the effects of craniofacial disorders, growth and other biological processes. Clin. Anat. 16:494 -500, 2003.

Anatomy is widely regarded by medical students as one of the most demanding and overwhelming subjects in medical education. Difficulties in anatomy are often attributed to lack of ability or insufficient effort, yet in reality they frequently arise from ineffective study strategies and a misunderstanding of how anatomical knowledge is structured, learned, and assessed.

This guide presents a comprehensive, experience-based approach to studying anatomy from the perspective of a medical educator. Rather than focusing on memorization, it emphasizes strategic learning, spatial reasoning, relational understanding, and long-term retention. The guide explores how anatomy is organized by experienced professors, why common study methods fail, and how students can adopt a structured framework that aligns with cognitive principles and clinical thinking.

Key topics include anatomy as a language of space and relationships, a four-phase study method grounded in visual familiarization, structured understanding, active reconstruction, and clinical anchoring, as well as high-yield memory strategies and common study traps. Special attention is given to the distinction between anatomy for examinations and anatomy for clinical practice, and to the importance of consistent, semester-long study.

Designed as a practical learning tool rather than a theoretical discussion, this work aims to help medical students regain clarity, confidence, and control in their study of anatomy. By shifting focus from passive memorization to purposeful organization and reasoning, anatomy becomes not only manageable, but intellectually meaningful and clinically relevant

The study was conducted to determine status of pulmonary function tests in sculptors, stone cutters, and cotton dust workers and flour mill workers. The study included 120 subjects in age group of 20-40 years from similar socioeconomic group. Eighty subjects were from different dust industries and 40 were taken as normal healthy controls. The pulmonary function tests viz forced vital capacity(FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 st second(FEV 1), forced expiratory flowbetween25-75%(FEF 25-75), peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR),maximum voluntary ventilation(MVV) were determined using Medspiror, a dry type of spirometer. The results showed a significant to highly significant variation in pulmonary function tests in workers of different dust industries. The decrease in FVC and MVV indicates a restrictive impairement whereas decrease in (FEV1), (FEF 25-75), (PEFR) indicates an obstructive impairment. The observed changes in pulmonary function tests could be due to mechanical irritation ca...

The aim of present study was to compare the heart rate variability parameters in healthy adult males and females. It is known that many factors influence the heart rate variability, one of which is gender. Gender difference in heart rate variability parameters is due to different activity of autonomic nervous system in both genders. Fifty healthy young males with age 18-25 years and BMI 18-25 kg/m 2 taken part in this study. HRV parameters of subjects were recorded after making them comfortable by resting in supine posture for 15 minutes. The recording was done in 5 minutes in the supine position by Recorder and Medicare System (P) Ltd. (RMS) Polyrite D. Intergroup comparison between male and female was done by using unpaired‘t’ test. HRV parameters like mean R-R interval, mean values of low frequency in normalized unit (LF nu), mean values Total Power (TP) and mean values of LF/HF ratio were high in males than females but mean high frequency in normalized unit ( HF nu) were high in...

Background: Marginal mandibular branch of facial nerve , one of the motor terminal branches of facial nerve if injured inadvertently during different operative procedures in head & neck region, it produces neurodeficit as a-weakness of the lower lip muscles on the injured side. This study will increase our understanding about the anatomical details of this nerve in question, so that damage to this nerve during surgical intervention can be avoided. IN spite of considerable surgical importance, there are not many studies on Marginal Mandibular Nerve particularly from this zone of India which drives the present researcher to pursue this cadaver based study on Marginal Mandibular Nerve, one of the terminal branches of Facial Nerve with respect to its course relations and communication.

The aim of this study was to provide detailed information about the arterial vascularization of the splenium of the corpus callosum (CC). The splenium is unique in that it is part of the largest commissural tract in the brain and a region in which pathologies are seen frequently. An exact description of the arterial vascularization of this part of the CC remains under debate. Thirty adult human brains (60 hemispheres) were obtained from routine autopsies. Cerebral arteries were separately cannulated and injected with colored latex. Then, the brains were fixed in formaldehyde, and dissections were performed using a surgical microscope. The diameter of the arterial branches supplying the splenium of the CC at their origin was investigated, and the vascularization patterns of these branches were observed. Vascular supply to the splenium was provided by the anterior pericallosal artery (40%) from the anterior circulation and by the posterior pericallosal artery (88%) and posterior acces...

Background and aims: Extensor digitorwn brevis manus is an accessory muscle on the dorsum of the hand. It lies in the fourth extensor compartment of the wrist. Its occurrence is relatively rare. Incidence of this muscle is 4% in the general population. Presence of this muscle is usually asymptomatic but rarely it may produce painful swelling which can be misdiagnosed as lipoma or ganglion or synovial cyst. Aim of the present study was to find out the incidence of extensor digitorwn brevis manus muscle in Indian cadavers. Material and Methods : Study was conducted on 64 human hands of adult Indian cadavers of unknown age and sex in the department of anatomy. A longitudinal incision was placed on the dorsum of hand along the axis of middle finger, skin flaps were raised both on radial and ulnar side. A transverse incision was taken at metacarpo-phalangeal joints from second to fifth fingers. Dorsum of each hand was dissected carefully to see the presence of extensor digitorwn brevis m...

Teaching methodology has been revolutionized with more reliance on various models, charts, specimens and internet to enhance the learning and experiences of new concepts. Anatomy museum forms the integral part of the Anatomy department. It comes under the category of science museums as they display various anatomical structures of scientific interest to medical students. The museum is not merely used for conversation, storage and display of items but it should also educate. Now these days many museums have been developed by non-medical persons. Such museums usually lack the quality, because of noninvolvement of anatomist. The main idea behind this article is bring out a low-cost museum to cater needs of students in acquiring knowledge and to understand the subject.

Objective: Majority of studies in the past about ventral branches of abdominal aorta mainly focused on the branching pattern. The cadaveric data on the vertebral level of origin of the ventral branches of abdominal aorta is less. Hence the study aimed at the morphology of proximal part of ventral branches of abdominal aorta. Objectives: 1. To determine the vertebral level of origin of coeliac trunk 2. To determine the vertebral level of origin of superior mesenteric artery 3. To determine the vertebral level of origin of inferior mesenteric artery Materials and Methods: Fifty embalmed cadavers were dissected. The vertebral level of origin of ventral branches were determined and variations were noted. Results: 1. In 38% cases, the vertebral level of origin of coeliac trunk was found to be located at the level of intervertebral disc (IVD) T12-L1. 2. In 24% cases, the vertebral level of origin of superior mesenteric artery was found to be located at the level of intervertebral disc (IVD) T12-L1 and upper 1/3rd of L1. 3. In 22% cases, the vertebral level of origin of inferior mesenteric artery was found to be located at the level of intervertebral disc (IVD) L3-L4. Conclusion: In conclusion, the present study provides a comprehensive data about the abdominal aorta and the proximal part of its ventral branches which will help in interpretation of radiographs and during surgery of different types of abdominal pathology in Indian population. Awareness of these variations can prevent potential intra-operative and post-operative complications.

Plastic compounds have been used for several decades to generate anatomical constructs for the training of new surgeons and medical students alike. The present study seeks to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of two different plastic compounds (Technovit 7143 and Epoxi BIODURÒE12) used to create corrosion casts of the vascular branching patterns in free muscle flaps. Porcine latissimus dorsi muscle free flaps were used in this study to create corrosion casts of their vascular branching tree by injecting the two different plastic compound into the main arterial supply. The casts generated by Epoxy BIODURÒ E12 have superior qualities compared to the casts injected with Technovit 7143, because the injection process is smoother at all branching levels, without dilation, strictures or intramuscular extravasation of the injectable plastic compound. The corrosion casts resulted from injecting Epoxy BIODURÒ E12 exhibit better elasticity and better resistance to mechanical handling ...

The authors describe a case of a 61-year-old female patient, which presented on multidetector computed tomographic (MDCT) angiography a gastrosplenic trunk (GST) and common hepatic artery (CHA) arose independently from abdominal aorta (AA). The GST arose from the anterior wall of the AA, at the level of upper edge of the L1 vertebral body. The left gastric artery (LGA) arose from the superior wall of the GST. The splenic artery (SA) continuous the path of GST. The CHA arose from the anterior wall of the AA, at the level of upper one third of the L1 vertebral body, at 15.3 mm above the origin of superior mesenteric artery (SMA). The incidence and developmental and clinical significance of this vascular variation is discussed with a detailed review of the literature.

Aim: To study the morphology of the bifurcation of the abdominal aorta. bifurcation of the abdominal aorta. level of bifurcation of the abdominal aorta was noted. was found to be located between Intervertebral disc (at the level of lower 1/3 rd of L4. vertebral level of bifurcation of the abdominal aorta which will help in interpretation of radiographs and during surgery of different types of abdominal pathology in Indian population.

Exostoses or hyperostoses are benign bony outgrowths originating from the cortical bone and depend on their location for a more precise designation. The most common types found in the oral cavity are the torus palatinus and the torus mandibularis. Buccal and palatal exostoses are located along the buccal aspect of the maxilla and/or the mandible (commonly in the premolar and molar areas) and on the palatal aspect of the maxilla (usually in the tuberosity area), respectively. The etiology of exostoses still hasn’t been enlightened but an interaction between environmental and genetic factors is accredited. They are usually asymptomatic, unless the mucosa becomes ulcerated. The frequency of exostoses increases with age, having their biggest prevalence from 60 years old, being more common in men and suffering ethnic influences. A thorough evaluation is important for the correct diagnosis since other lesions have similar clinical characteristics to the exostoses such as osteomas. The maj...

BACKGROUND: From the medical Point of view pancreas is an important organ. It is the target of two major diseases like Diabetes mellitus and pancreatic cancer. Understanding the development of Pancreas helps in planning new therapeutic strategies that help in reducing mortality, morbidity, preventing and curing of either or both of these diseases. OBJECTIVES: The present study on human foetal panereas specimens of different gestational ages was conducted with the following objectives to observe variations in morphology and morphometry and to observe the histogenesis. MATERIALS & METHODS: This work was conducted on 17 formalin preserved dead fetuses and they are of both sexes between 6 weeks to 40 weeks gestational age and without any congenital anomalies. RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS: In the present study all the specimens were pink in colour. These findings on colour are in agreement with that reported in the literature. Minimum length of pancreas observed was 2.4cm and maximum was 4.0cm. The minimum and maximum width of the pancreas at the level of head was 1.0cm and 1.5cm whereas the same at the level of body of pancreas were 0.5 and 1.2cm. Thickness of pancreas at the level of head was ranging between 0.3 to 0.9cm and at the level of body it was 0.2-0.6cm. The weight of pancreas ranged from 1.1 grams to 2.5 grams.

Objective: Hill-Sachs lesions are considered as an a priori risk factor for glenohumeral instability. Determination of glenoid and coracoacromial arch morphometric properties of patients with Hill-Sachs lesions may aid in the diagnosis, identification of optimal treatment strategies and prevention of recurrence.
Methods: Computed tomography (CT) images of individuals between the ages of 20-40 were examined and the morphometric characteristics of the 39 patients with Hill-Sachs lesions and 71 control patients with healthy shoulder structures were compared. Glenoid inclination (GI), acromio-humeral distance (AHD), glenoid height (GH), glenoid superior width (GWs), glenoid inferior width (GWi), glenoid surface (GS), coraco-acromial distance (CAD), coraco-glenoid distance (CGD) and acromio-glenoid distance (AGD) were determined as morphometric features.
Results: The average values of the measurements in Hill-Sachs and control groups, respectively, were; glenoid inclination (1.06±6.61°; 4.33±6.20°), acromio-humeral distance (6.66±1.26; 7.67±1.64 mm), glenoid height (33.90±2.34; 35.03±3.29 mm), glenoid superior width (19.89±5.89; 19.83±2.37 mm), glenoid inferior width (24.28±2.53; 26.04±3.06 mm), glenoid surface (647.93±91.26; 721.58±136.86 mm2), coraco-acromial distance (40.24±3.99; 38.10±3.80 mm), coraco-glenoid distance (29.39±3.64; 29.96±4.44 mm) and acromio-glenoid distance (31.44±3.45; 31.64– 33.56 mm). Glenoid inclination (p=0.011), acromio-humeral distance (p=0.001), glenoid height (p=0.039), glenoid inferior width (p=0.001), glenoid surface area (p=0.002) and coraco-acromial distance (p=0.008) were significantly different between the groups.
Conclusion: The glenoid and coracoacromial arch morphometry showed significant differences in patients with Hill-Sachs lesions. Recognizing these differences can reduce recurrence rates by reducing risk factors in the treatment of glenohumeral instability and providing the closest anatomical integrity to normal.